Thursday, March 28, 2024

"Maundy Thursday" - The Last Supper 16C

 The Last Supper, about 1525–30, Simon Bening.  J. Paul Getty Museum, Ms. Ludwig IX 19, fol. 83v

The word Maundy comes from the Latin word mandatum, which means "command." The command that this holy day refers to is the one that Jesus gave to his disciples during the Last Supper: A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another, just like I have loved you; that you also love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another. — John 13:34–35

"Maundy Thursday" - Jesus in "The Garden of Gethsemane" - Illuminated Manuscripts

1500-25 Agony in the garden Simon Bening (1483-1561)  or follower From a Book of Hours (use of Rome) of Southern Netherlands (Den Haag, MMW, 10 E 3). Passion according to St. John with only a hint of tiny blossoms.

According to all the Gospels, immediately after the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday, Jesus took a walk to pray. Each Gospel offers a slightly different account regarding narrative details. The gospels of Matthew & Mark identify this place of prayer as Gethsemane. 

Jesus was accompanied by 3 Apostles: Peter, John & James, whom he asked to stay awake & pray. He moved "a stone's throw away" from them, where He felt overwhelming sadness & anguish, & said "My Father, if it is possible, let this cup pass me by. Nevertheless, let it be as you, not I, would have it.Then, a little while later, He said, "If this cup cannot pass by, but I must drink it, your will be done!" (Matthew 26:42). 

He said this prayer 3 times, checking on the 3 apostles between each prayer & finding them asleep. He commented: "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak." An angel came from heaven to strengthen him. During his agony in the garden, he prayed, "his sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling down upon the ground." ( Luke 22:44).

From Illuminated Manuscripts -
1270 Manuscript Leaf with the Agony in the Garden from a Royal Psalter

Illuminated Manuscript, Book of Hours in Dutch, Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane, Walters Manuscript W.918, fol. 104v

Prayer Book, including Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane, Walters Manuscript W.164, fol. 15v

Garden of Gethsemane Hennessy Book of Hours - miniaturist Simon Benning - Flanders, 1530-1540

Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane. Rosenwald-Book Of Hours

The garden at Gethsemane, a place whose name literally means oil press, is located on a slope of the Mount of Olives just across the Kidron Valley from Jerusalem. A garden of ancient olive trees stands there to this day. Gethsemane is most famous as the place where Jesus prayed & his disciples slept the night before Jesus' crucifixion. According to the New Testament it was a place that Jesus & his disciples customarily visited, which allowed Judas to find him on the night of his arrest. 

Gethsemane appears in Matthew (26:36) & Mark (14:32). The Gospel of John says Jesus frequently went to Gethsemane with His disciples to pray (John 18:2). In the Bible at John 18:1l “When Jesus had spoken these words, He went forth with His disciples over the brook Cedron, where was a garden, into the which He entered, and His disciples.” From other scriptures, such as, Matthew 26:36 we know that this garden was called “Gethsemane.”

"Maundy Thursday" - The Last Supper

The Last Supper about 1400–10, J. Paul Getty Museum, Ms. 33, fol. 286v

Near the end of the Last Supper, Christ said to His disciples, "A new commandment I give unto you: That you love one another, as I have loved you, that you also love one another."

During the Last Supper, Jesus washed his disciples' feet. In England, this act was adopted politically as a way of reminding rulers, that they are here to serve their subjects, until 1689. Up until then the King or Queen would wash the feet of the poor on Maundy Thursday in Westminster Abbey.  Throughout the 17C & earlier, the King or Queen would wash the feet of the selected poor people as a gesture of humility in remembrance of Jesus' washing the feet of the disciples. The ceremony originated in the Roman Catholic Church inspired by the events that occurred during the night Jesus observed the Passover with his disciples. The symbolic washing of feet, which was begun around the 4C, involved a bishop or cardinal washing the feet of the priests & acolytes. While in Rome, the Pope would wash the feet of selected Cardinals. This was seen as fulfilling the mandate, that the greatest among the brethren will be the servant of all.

"Maundy Thursday" - The Last Supper

The Last Supper, about 1475, Unknown.  J. Paul Getty Museum, Ms. Ludwig XIII 5, v2, fol. 172

The word Maundy comes from the Latin word mandatum, which means "command." The command that this holy day refers to is the one that Jesus gave to his disciples during the Last Supper: A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another, just like I have loved you; that you also love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another. — John 13:34–35

"Maundy Thursday" - Betrayal of Christ in "The Garden of Gethsemane"

1445 Bartolomeo di Tommaso (Italian, Umbrian, active by 1425, died 1453) The Betrayal of Christ

The Bible story of Judas betraying Jesus is found in all 4 gospels. During the the Last Supper Jesus predicts that "one of you will betray me." Judas leaves the supper & goes to the Roman authorities who are looking to arrest Jesus. He accepts a bribe of 30 silver & agrees to take them to Jesus.  

Judas told the soldiers "Whoever it is I kiss, he is the one; take him into custody, & lead him away under guard.” Leading the group into the garden, Judas sees Jesus with his disciples & approaches him. “Greetings, Rabbi!” Judas says, & he kisses Jesus very lightly. “Fellow, for what purpose are you present?” Jesus responds. (Matthew 26:49, 50) Answering his own question, Jesus says: “Judas, are you betraying the Son of Man with a kiss?”

As the soldiers move toward Jesus, the apostles recognize what is happening. “Lord, should we strike with the sword?” they ask. (Luke 22:49) Before Jesus can respond, Peter uses one of the 2 swords that the apostles have & attacks Malchus, a servant of the high priest, cutting off his right ear.

Jesus caresses the ear of Malchus, healing the wound. He then addresses Peter: “Return your sword to its place, for all those who take up the sword will perish by the sword.” Jesus does not fight bring captured, as he explains: “How would the Scriptures be fulfilled that say it must take place this way?” (Matthew 26:52) This leads to the trial & Crucifixion of Christ.

John 18:1-13
1 When he had finished praying, Jesus left with his disciples and crossed the Kidron Valley. On the other side there was a garden, and he and his disciples went into it.
2 Now Judas, who betrayed him, knew the place, because Jesus had often met there with his disciples.
3 So Judas came to the garden, guiding a detachment of soldiers and some officials from the chief priests and the Pharisees. They were carrying torches, lanterns and weapons.
4 Jesus, knowing all that was going to happen to him, went out and asked them, “Who is it you want?”
5 “Jesus of Nazareth,” they replied. “I am he,” Jesus said. (And Judas the traitor was standing there with them.)
6 When Jesus said, “I am he,” they drew back and fell to the ground.
7 Again he asked them, “Who is it you want?”“Jesus of Nazareth,” they said.
8 Jesus answered, “I told you that I am he. If you are looking for me, then let these men go.”
9 This happened so that the words he had spoken would be fulfilled: “I have not lost one of those you gave me.”
10 Then Simon Peter, who had a sword, drew it and struck the high priest’s servant, cutting off his right ear. (The servant’s name was Malchus.)
11 Jesus commanded Peter, “Put your sword away! Shall I not drink the cup the Father has given me?”
12 Then the detachment of soldiers with its commander and the Jewish officials arrested Jesus. They bound him
13 and brought him first to Annas, who was the father-in-law of Caiaphas, the high priest that year.

Luke 22:1-6
1 Now the Festival of Unleavened Bread, called the Passover, was approaching,
2 and the chief priests and the teachers of the law were looking for some way to get rid of Jesus, for they were afraid of the people.
3 Then Satan entered Judas, called Iscariot, one of the Twelve.
4 And Judas went to the chief priests and the officers of the temple guard and discussed with them how he might betray Jesus.
5 They were delighted and agreed to give him money.
6 He consented, and watched for an opportunity to hand Jesus over to them when no crowd was present.
Luke 22:47-71
47 While he was still speaking a crowd came up, and the man who was called Judas, one of the Twelve, was leading them. He approached Jesus to kiss him,
48 but Jesus asked him, “Judas, are you betraying the Son of Man with a kiss?”
49 When Jesus’ followers saw what was going to happen, they said, “Lord, should we strike with our swords?”
50 And one of them struck the servant of the high priest, cutting off his right ear.
51 But Jesus answered, “No more of this!” And he touched the man’s ear and healed him.
52 Then Jesus said to the chief priests, the officers of the temple guard, and the elders, who had come for him, “Am I leading a rebellion, that you have come with swords and clubs?
53 Every day I was with you in the temple courts, and you did not lay a hand on me. But this is your hour—when darkness reigns.”
54 Then seizing him, they led him away and took him into the house of the high priest. Peter followed at a distance.
55 And when some there had kindled a fire in the middle of the courtyard and had sat down together, Peter sat down with them.
56 A servant girl saw him seated there in the firelight. She looked closely at him and said, “This man was with him.”
57 But he denied it. “Woman, I don’t know him,” he said.
58 A little later someone else saw him and said, “You also are one of them.” “Man, I am not!” Peter replied.
59 About an hour later another asserted, “Certainly this fellow was with him, for he is a Galilean.”
60 Peter replied, “Man, I don’t know what you’re talking about!” Just as he was speaking, the rooster crowed.
61 The Lord turned and looked straight at Peter. Then Peter remembered the word the Lord had spoken to him: “Before the rooster crows today, you will disown me three times.”
62 And he went outside and wept bitterly.
63 The men who were guarding Jesus began mocking and beating him.
64 They blindfolded him and demanded, “Prophesy! Who hit you?”
65 And they said many other insulting things to him.
66 At daybreak the council of the elders of the people, both the chief priests and the teachers of the law, met together, and Jesus was led before them.
67 “If you are the Messiah,” they said, “tell us.” Jesus answered, “If I tell you, you will not believe me,
68 and if I asked you, you would not answer.
69 But from now on, the Son of Man will be seated at the right hand of the mighty God.”
70 They all asked, “Are you then the Son of God?” He replied, “You say that I am.”
71 Then they said, “Why do we need any more testimony? We have heard it from his own lips.”

Matthew 26:47-75
47 While he was still speaking, Judas, one of the Twelve, arrived. With him was a large crowd armed with swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests and the elders of the people.
48 Now the betrayer had arranged a signal with them: “The one I kiss is the man; arrest him.”
49 Going at once to Jesus, Judas said, “Greetings, Rabbi!” and kissed him.
50 Jesus replied, “Do what you came for, friend.”Then the men stepped forward, seized Jesus and arrested him.
51 With that, one of Jesus’ companions reached for his sword, drew it out and struck the servant of the high priest, cutting off his ear.
52 “Put your sword back in its place,” Jesus said to him, “for all who draw the sword will die by the sword.
53 Do you think I cannot call on my Father, and he will at once put at my disposal more than twelve legions of angels?
54 But how then would the Scriptures be fulfilled that say it must happen in this way?”
55 In that hour Jesus said to the crowd, “Am I leading a rebellion, that you have come out with swords and clubs to capture me? Every day I sat in the temple courts teaching, and you did not arrest me.
56 But this has all taken place that the writings of the prophets might be fulfilled.” Then all the disciples deserted him and fled.
57 Those who had arrested Jesus took him to Caiaphas the high priest, where the teachers of the law and the elders had assembled.
58 But Peter followed him at a distance, right up to the courtyard of the high priest. He entered and sat down with the guards to see the outcome.
59 The chief priests and the whole Sanhedrin were looking for false evidence against Jesus so that they could put him to death.
60 But they did not find any, though many false witnesses came forward. Finally two came forward
61 and declared, “This fellow said, ‘I am able to destroy the temple of God and rebuild it in three days.’ ”
62 Then the high priest stood up and said to Jesus, “Are you not going to answer? What is this testimony that these men are bringing against you?”
63 But Jesus remained silent. The high priest said to him, “I charge you under oath by the living God: Tell us if you are the Messiah, the Son of God.”
64 “You have said so,” Jesus replied. “But I say to all of you: From now on you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven.”
65 Then the high priest tore his clothes and said, “He has spoken blasphemy! Why do we need any more witnesses? Look, now you have heard the blasphemy.
66 What do you think?” “He is worthy of death,” they answered.
67 Then they spit in his face and struck him with their fists. Others slapped him
68 and said, “Prophesy to us, Messiah. Who hit you?”
69 Now Peter was sitting out in the courtyard, and a servant girl came to him. “You also were with Jesus of Galilee,” she said.
70 But he denied it before them all. “I don’t know what you’re talking about,” he said.
71 Then he went out to the gateway, where another servant girl saw him and said to the people there, “This fellow was with Jesus of Nazareth.”
72 He denied it again, with an oath: “I don’t know the man!”
73 After a little while, those standing there went up to Peter and said, “Surely you are one of them; your accent gives you away.”
74 Then he began to call down curses, and he swore to them, “I don’t know the man!” Immediately a rooster crowed.
75 Then Peter remembered the word Jesus had spoken: “Before the rooster crows, you will disown me three times.” And he went outside and wept bitterly.

Mark 14:43-72
43 Just as he was speaking, Judas, one of the Twelve, appeared. With him was a crowd armed with swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests, the teachers of the law, and the elders.
44 Now the betrayer had arranged a signal with them: “The one I kiss is the man; arrest him and lead him away under guard.”
45 Going at once to Jesus, Judas said, “Rabbi!” and kissed him.
46 The men seized Jesus and arrested him.
47 Then one of those standing near drew his sword and struck the servant of the high priest, cutting off his ear.
48 “Am I leading a rebellion,” said Jesus, “that you have come out with swords and clubs to capture me?
49 Every day I was with you, teaching in the temple courts, and you did not arrest me. But the Scriptures must be fulfilled.”
50 Then everyone deserted him and fled.
51 A young man, wearing nothing but a linen garment, was following Jesus. When they seized him,
52 he fled naked, leaving his garment behind.
53 They took Jesus to the high priest, and all the chief priests, the elders and the teachers of the law came together.
54 Peter followed him at a distance, right into the courtyard of the high priest. There he sat with the guards and warmed himself at the fire.
55 The chief priests and the whole Sanhedrin were looking for evidence against Jesus so that they could put him to death, but they did not find any.
56 Many testified falsely against him, but their statements did not agree.
57 Then some stood up and gave this false testimony against him:
58 “We heard him say, ‘I will destroy this temple made with human hands and in three days will build another, not made with hands.’ ”
59 Yet even then their testimony did not agree.
60 Then the high priest stood up before them and asked Jesus, “Are you not going to answer? What is this testimony that these men are bringing against you?”
61 But Jesus remained silent and gave no answer. Again the high priest asked him, “Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?”
62 “I am,” said Jesus. “And you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven.”
63 The high priest tore his clothes. “Why do we need any more witnesses?” he asked.
64 “You have heard the blasphemy. What do you think?” They all condemned him as worthy of death.
65 Then some began to spit at him; they blindfolded him, struck him with their fists, and said, “Prophesy!” And the guards took him and beat him.
66 While Peter was below in the courtyard, one of the servant girls of the high priest came by.
67 When she saw Peter warming himself, she looked closely at him. “You also were with that Nazarene, Jesus,” she said.
68 But he denied it. “I don’t know or understand what you’re talking about,” he said, and went out into the entryway.
69 When the servant girl saw him there, she said again to those standing around, “This fellow is one of them.”
70 Again he denied it. After a little while, those standing near said to Peter, “Surely you are one of them, for you are a Galilean.”
71 He began to call down curses, and he swore to them, “I don’t know this man you’re talking about.”
72 Immediately the rooster crowed the second time. Then Peter remembered the word Jesus had spoken to him: “Before the rooster crows twiceyou will disown me three times.” And he broke down and wept.

Wednesday, March 27, 2024

"Maundy Thursday" - The Last Supper

Manuscript European Bible (Ottheinrich) 15C p 85 The Last Supper

The word Maundy comes from the Latin word mandatum, which means "command." The command that this holy day refers to is the one that Jesus gave to his disciples during the Last Supper: A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another, just like I have loved you; that you also love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another. — John 13:34–35

"Maundy Thursday" - The Last Supper 14C & 16C

1325 Ugolino da Siena (Italian, Sienese, active 1315–30s) The Last Supper

Francesco Bassano the Younger (1563-1570) Last Supper

The word Maundy comes from the Latin word mandatum, which means "command." The command that this holy day refers to is the one that Jesus gave to his disciples during the Last Supper: A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another, just like I have loved you; that you also love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another. — John 13:34–35

"Maundy Thursday" - The Last Supper

The Last Supper, about 1030–40, Unknown. J. Paul Getty Museum, Ms. Ludwig VII 1, fol. 38

The word Maundy comes from the Latin word mandatum, which means "command." The command that this holy day refers to is the one that Jesus gave to his disciples during the Last Supper: A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another, just like I have loved you; that you also love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another. — John 13:34–35

Tuesday, March 26, 2024

"Maundy Thursday" - The Last Supper

1308-11 Duccio di Buoninsegna (Italian artist, 1255-1319) Washing of the Feet

Maundy Thursday refers to Jesus as a servant and calld for his followers to do the same. It also draws a connection between the Passover sacrifice, a Jewish tradition, & the imminent sacrifice of Jesus. The night before Jesus was crucified, he had a Passover supper with his disciples. (Passover is a Jewish holy day that celebrates God's deliverance of the Israelites from their slavery in Egypt.) After supper, Jesus knew that this would be his final opportunity to instruct his disciples before the crucifixion, so he talked at length about his purposes, what his followers should do in response, and the promise of the Holy Spirit to come. He then washed his disciples' feet in a demonstration of humility and servant-hood. Finally, he gave bread and wine to his disciples and asked them to partake of it in remembrance of him. The act of partaking bread and wine is called Communion (or the Last Supper) today. 

The word Maundy comes from the Latin word mandatum, which means "command." The command that this holy day refers to is the one that Jesus gave to his disciples during the Last Supper: A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another, just like I have loved you; that you also love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another. — John 13:34–35

The last meal Jesus shared with His disciples was the Passover meal. Jesus was the host: he washed the feet of His followers, & served them at the table. He broke bread with His betrayer, Judas; With His denier, Peter; with the "friends," who would sleep when He needed comfort & run, as he was facing death. Yet Jesus still ate with them, Prayed with them, sang a hymn with them. Jesus gave them a new command:  "Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. "
1308-11 Duccio di Buoninsegna (Italian artist, 1255-1319) The Last Supper

Sunday, March 24, 2024

Palm Sunday - Jesus Enters Jerusalem


The Entry Into Jerusalem, Halychyna, early 17C, The National Kyiv-Pechersk Historical and Cultural Preserve.  

This version of Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem follows the Byzantine tradition of portraying Jesus seated sideways on a donkey with his Apostles behind Him and the Jerusalem crowd awaiting his arrival. Golden circles around the head indicates holiness. The bowed head of the donkey is also typically Byzantine. The clothing of the Jerusalem public mirrors that of 17C Ukrainian burghers & the tiered gables of Jerusalem are rendered in the style of Western Ukraine.

The entry of Jesus & His disciples into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday marks the beginning of Holy Week, which in Christianity is the week just before Easter. In the West, it is also the last week of Lent, & includes Palm Sunday, Holy Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Holy Friday, & Holy Saturday. It does not include Easter Sunday, which begins the season of Easter, although traditions observing the Easter may vary in different liturgical customs.

John The Baptist saw Jesus coming toward him and said, “Look, the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world. I have seen and I testify that this is the Son of God.” (John 1:29,34). John the Baptist had been preaching about the coming Messiah, identifying himself as the forerunner Isaiah had promised over 700 years earlier. In Isaiah 40:3, John said, “I am the voice of one calling in the desert,‘Make straight the way for the Lord ‘ “ (John 1:23). Introducing Jesus to Israel as the Lamb of God would prompt a comparison between Jesus and the Passover lamb in their minds.

Palm Sunday - Jesus Enters Jerusalem


Assisi frescoes Entry into Jerusalem by Pietro Lorenzetti ca. 1280 – 1348

On Palm Sunday, Christians celebrate the Lord's triumphant entrance into Jerusalem for Passover, where he was welcomed by crowds worshiping him & laying down palm leaves before him. The Galileans, the pilgrim crowd, acclaimed Jesus, & the local Judeans did not. By Palm Sunday, many of the Jews were filled with rage for Jesus. In Bethany, he raised Lazarus from the dead, a miracle which won Him renown among certain Pharisees. 

Jesus took refuge at Ephrem - returning 6 days before Passover to Bethany, & triumphantly entered Jerusalem. That evening, He left Jerusalem & returned Monday. He spent time with Gentiles in the Temple, & on Wednesday He left for the Mount of Olives. Here He told the apostles of the events of the next several days, including His impending death. He returned to Jerusalem on Thursday, to share the Last Supper with His apostles. He was subsequently arrested & tried. He was crucified at Calvary on Friday, outside the gates of Jerusalem. He was buried the same day, & arose three days later, on Easter Sunday.

Passover was only 4 days away, when Jesus rode a donkey into Jerusalem that year.  He entered the city on the 10th day of the month.  Exodus 12:3, 5-6, says, Speak ye unto all the congregation of Israel, saying, In the tenth day of this month they shall take to them every man a lamb, according to the house of their fathers, a lamb for an house.. . ..Your lamb shall be without blemish, a male of the first year: ye shall take it out from the sheep, or from the goats: And ye shall keep it up until the fourteenth day of the same month: and the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel shall kill it in the evening.

Saturday, March 23, 2024

Palm Sunday - Jesus Enters Jerusalem

'Livre d'images de madame Marie,' Hainaut or Brabant ca. 1280-1290 ( Nouvelle acquisition française 16251, fol. 29r) Palm Sunday

Christians observe Palm Sunday on the Sunday before Easter, celebrating Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The reason they call it Palm Sunday stems from the fact that when Jesus rode a donkey into Jerusalem, a large crowd of people in the city spread out palm branches on the ground before him as a sign of his kingship. Throughout Jesus' 3-year ministry, he downplayed his role as Messiah and sometimes even told people whom he healed not to say anything about the miracle to others. Palm Sunday is the one exception in which his followers loudly proclaimed his glory to all.

Entry into Jerusalem in Armenian Manuscript

Friday, March 22, 2024

Palm Sunday - Jesus Enters Jerusalem

As Jesus was riding in and the people were crying “Hosanna in the highest,” either knowingly or not, symbolically selecting the paschal lamb for sacrifice.

Christ Entering Jerusalem Giotto di Bondone  (?-1337)  Scrovegni Grotto .

Palm Sunday - Jesus Enters Jerusalem

1308 Duccio di Buoninsegna (Italian artist, 1255-1319) Entry into Jerusalem

The Passover story from the Old & New Testaments in the Christian Bible relates that God had sent Moses to free the Israelites from slavery in Egypt & bring them into the Promised Land.  But Pharaoh refused to let them go, saying “Who is the Lord, that I should obey him & let Israel go? I do not know the Lord & I will not let Israel go” (Exodus 5:2). Pharaoh considered himself to be a god, & therefore equal to any other god.

And so, it is written in The Bible, God had brought a series of plagues against Egypt.  He turned their water to blood.  He caused an infestation of frogs, then one of gnats, & after that, one of flies.  He made their livestock drop dead.  He caused an outbreak of painful boils, a great hailstorm that destroyed their crops, a plague of locusts that ate what was left, & another of darkness. Through these 9 plagues, Pharaoh had remained just as obstinate as God had predicted, & refused to let the Israelites go.

The Lord had said to a worried Moses, “I will bring one more plague on Pharaoh & on Egypt. After that, he will let you go from here, & when he does, he will drive you out completely.” (Exodus 11:1-2). The 10th plague, the death of all the firstborn, would break Pharoah’s will & free the Israelites from their bondage, but first they had to be protected from it. On the 10th day of the 1st month God had them select a male lamb for each household & inspect it for 3 days to be sure it had no blemish or defect. Then it was slaughtered, & its blood was applied to the door posts of their homes. Sunset brought the 14th of the month, & after cooking the lamb, each family gathered behind closed doors in their own house, & ate it quickly with some bitter herbs & unleavened bread, not venturing outside.  It is reported that at midnight the destroying angel came through Egypt & took the life of the first born of every family, except for those who had covered their door posts with lamb’s blood (Exodus 12:1-13, 21-23, 28-30).

Two years after the exodus from Egypt the Lord had Moses take a census of the all the people, listing by name every male 20 years old or older who could serve in the army. The number of those who met the requirements totaled 603,550 (Numbers 1:1-46).  Most scholars agree that the total Israelite population would have been about 1.5 million at the time.

On the first Christian Palm Sunday, the 10th day of the 1st month, another Passover Lamb was selected by allowing people to hail Him as Israel’s King for the first & only time in His life. When the Pharisees told him to rebuke His disciples for doing so, He said if they kept silent the very stones would cry out (Luke 19:39-40). 

This was the day ordained for His official appearance as their Messiah. For the next 3 days, He was subjected to the most intense questioning of His entire ministry lest there be any defects found in His words or deeds. Then on the 14th day, He was crucified.

Tuesday, March 19, 2024

"Lent's Temptations" - Christ & Satan 13C

1280 Psalter - Hours of Yolande of Soissons  French, 1280-1299 Morgan m729.039v

“The Spirit drove Jesus out into the desert,
& he remained in the desert for forty days,
tempted by Satan.
He was among wild beasts,
& the angels ministered to him.”
Mark 1:12-13

All 3 Gospels relate that Jesus spent a period of 40 days & nights in the desert immediately following His Baptism in the Jordan by John the Baptist & the dramatic recognition given by Heaven to this event. The number 40 obviously has resonance with such Old Testament events as the 40 days & nights of the Great Flood (Genesis 7:9), the 40 days & nights that Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the Ten Commandments from God (Exodus 24:18) & the 40 years in which the Hebrews wandered in the wilderness (Numbers 14:32-34).  Mark’s reference to the Temptation of Jesus is the shortest of the three. Matthew (Matthew 4:1-11) & Luke (Luke 4:1-13) both describe in detail the temptations tried by Satan, temptations to power & pride, which Jesus resisted. All three agree that at the end of these 40 days & nights, Jesus was tired & hungry.

The Temptation of Christ

Jesus was led by the Spirit into the desert to be tempted by the devil. After fasting forty days and forty nights, he was hungry. The tempter came to him and said, "If you are the Son of God, tell these stones to become bread." Jesus answered, "It is written: 'Man does not live on bread alone, but on every word that comes from the mouth of God." Then the devil took him to the holy city and had him stand on the highest point of the temple. "If you are the Son of God," he said, "throw yourself down. For it is written: " 'He will command his angels concerning you, and they will lift you up in their hands, so that you will not strike your foot against a stone.'" Jesus answered him, "It is also written: 'Do not put the Lord your God to the test.'"  Again, the devil took him to a very high mountain and showed him all the kingdoms of the world and their splendor. "All this I will give you," he said, "if you will bow down and worship me." Jesus said to him, "Away from me, Satan! For it is written: 'Worship the Lord your God, and serve him only.'" Then the devil left him, and angels came and attended him.

Monday, March 18, 2024

"Lent's Temptations" - More Temptations & More Angels

Maitre Francois, Temptation of Christ  From City of God by Saint Augustine of Hippo  French, c. 1475-1478  The Hague, Meermano Museum  MS RMMW 10 A 11, fol. 423r (detail)

“The Spirit drove Jesus out into the desert,
& he remained in the desert for forty days,
tempted by Satan.
He was among wild beasts,
& the angels ministered to him.”
Mark 1:12-13

All three Synoptic Gospels relate that Jesus spent a period of 40 days & nights in the desert immediately following His Baptism in the Jordan by John the Baptist & the dramatic recognition given by Heaven to this event. The number 40 obviously has resonance with such Old Testament events as the 40 days & nights of the Great Flood (Genesis 7:9), the 40 days & nights that Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the Ten Commandments from God (Exodus 24:18) & the 40 years in which the Hebrews wandered in the wilderness (Numbers 14:32-34).  Mark’s reference to the Temptation of Jesus is the shortest of the three. Matthew (Matthew 4:1-11) & Luke (Luke 4:1-13) both describe in detail the temptations tried by Satan, temptations to power & pride, which Jesus resisted. All three agree that at the end of these 40 days & nights, Jesus was tired & hungry.  In this image, the scene of the angels ministering (& snacking!) at a table in the far background, behind the 2 scenes depicting the temptations.

Sunday, March 17, 2024

Women's Work - A Bit of the History of Crochet

 Girls Learning to Crochet while bored Cat Sleeps  Edward Thompson Davis (British  1833 - 1867)

When one of my daughters recently began to crochet, I decided to find a few paintings & a quick history of the art & craft of crochet.  It wasn't that easy!  Proud of her, as usual, but not many proven facts about the origins of this lovely & practical artistic craft exist to share with her or you.  Hope you  enjoy this brief overview  Still working on it...     

A Bit of the History of Crocheting

Speculation on the origins of crochet remain largely scientifically undocumented. Some sources suggest that crochet originated in Arabia, where it spread along Arab trade routes to other parts of the Mediterranean. Others speculate that crochet has roots in faraway indigenous South American tribes.  Some historians believe crocheting developed independently in various cultures. Various researchers trace its roots back to ancient China, Egypt, & South America, where similar techniques of interlocking loops with a hook were used.

Crochet has been called many names throughout history including, but not limited to, netting, knotting, needle-coiling, looped needle-netting, Tunisian crochet, Irish crochet, shepherd's knitting, lace making & tatting.  The term in use today, "crochet," comes from the word croc/croche, the Muddle French word for hook. It could be connected to the Norse word krokr, which also means hook. The French, Dutch, & Swedish people call it crochet, while in Italian it’s uncinetto.

Woman Crocheting 1847    Julius Exner (Danish 1825 - 1910 )

What is considered to be crochet today can be traced back to the 15C - 17C. Many cultures from that period have claimed their crochet history including: France, South Africa, England, Italy, Arabia, & China. 

Some believe that crochet started in the Middle East & then was found very soon after in Spain, much like knitting. The Middle East is known for vast trade routes that crossed the continents & some speculate that the art form would be traded along the routes as well. Much like knitting, it is difficult for archeologists to find evidence of crochet as many pieces were made from natural fibers degrade over time. 

Woman Crocheting  William Adolphe Bouguereau (French 1825 - 1905)

Earlier work identified as crochet was commonly made by nålebinding, an early looped yarn technique. Both knitting & crochet were born from this technique called Nålebinding, which literally means “binding with a needle” in Danish. 

Nalbinding is much older than crochet or knitting.  The oldest known piece dates back to  6500 BC. It was found in the 1983 excavation of  Nahal Hemar Cave, an archeological cave site in Israel, on a cliff in the Judean Desert near the Dead Sea & northwest of Mount Sodom. The fabric objects found in the cave included rope baskets, fabrics, & nets. The fabric items were found covered in what was thought to be asphalt from nearby construction projects. Closer scientific analyses revealed it was, in fact, an ancient glue that dated to around 8310–8110 years ago.

Girl Crocheting   Alexei Alexeivich Harlamoff (Russian 1840 - 1925)

Many of the fabric pieces found there were dated from the 7C BC. The flax fiber items were processed & spun into yarn. The archaeologists divided the fabric finds into 4 groups: yarns, nalbinding (looping), knotted netting, & twinning. The fabrics contained nalbinding assembalages, which is an early form of looping or single thread looping crochet akin to modern crochet. Nahal Hemar Cave has been currently noted as the earliest presently known site of crochet.

Nahal Hemar is conjectured to have been to be a place for religious ceremonies or magic from an ancestor cult because of the decorated skulls & carved limestone masks. Celebrants may have worn the masks to honor the dead. Other artifacts at the site such as the partial garments & animal & anthropoid figurines have bolstered the notion of activities in this cave principally serving magical beliefs. Complicating this theory is the possibility that the statue fragments may have been brought from distant locations as a donation that was part of these recognized religious rituals.

Woman Crocheting   Pierre Auguste Renoir (French, 1841-1919)

Another example of of Nålebinding is believed to date back to 6000 BC. The women of the Nanti Tribe (an indigenous people of the Camisea region of Peru) still practice it. The Nanti women used nalbinding to make bracelets. The Nanti people live along Camisea & Timpía Rivers as well as along the headwaters of the Ticumpinía River in the southern jungle of Peru. Their land is part of the Kugapakori, Nahua, & Nanti Reserve. Sadly. of the 300 Nanti peoples,  2 studies reportedly  written by the Energy & Mines Ministry & Health Ministry detail the negative impacts of a large gas project in the Amazon region of Peru. One report claims that as a result of the project, 22 indigenous people died between May 2002 & May 2003, & at that time 30 percent of the Nanti tribe had died since 1995.

Early evidence of Nalbinding was also found in Tybrind Vig, a Mesolithic fishing village in Denmark dating back to 4200 BC. The Late Mesolithic Stone Age settlement of Tybrind Vig, which today is submerged, is located on the west coast of the Danish island Fyn (central Denmark) facing a sea called Lillebælt. Carbon-14 dates inform us that the occupation period spanned some 1,500 years, from about 5500 to 4000 .BC. Currently most Neolithic specimens are found in Denmark, although there are some fragments from the Lake Dwellings in Switzerland. The most extraordinary finds were textiles made of twisted strings of lime & willow knitted together in a technique called "needle netting;" these are the oldest European textiles found to date.  However the fabric remains from this period are extremely few so nalbinding’s true extent is unknown.

Young Woman Crocheting   Pierre Auguste Renoir (Frebch, 1841-1919)

Since the Stone Age a number of Nalbinding examples have surfaced. A large quantity in cross-knit & simple looping variants appear in the Paracas & Nazca textiles from Peru & surrounding Andean regions. In Egypt over a hundred examples ranging in date from potentially as early at 200 CE through to the 12C. There are also contemporaneous examples from surrounding regions such as Dura Europos in present day Syria, Masada in present day Isreal, & Semna in present day Sudan.

Woman Crocheting   Edith Martineau (British  1842 - 1909)

In other cultures, crocheting had been used for creating clothing & other decorative purposes. In east Asia, crocheting was used to create dolls dating as far back as China's Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 B.C.E.). 

Surviving crocheted pieces include Egyptian socks, with a divided toe, from the 200 or 300 AD. now at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London.

The 550 B.C. slip-stitch is an obvious descendant of nalbinding. There is evidence that slip-stitching was done by a hook in Scotland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Estonia, Romania, & the Balkans.  Crochet was known as “shepherd’s knitting” in the British Isles & in Denmark. 

Tapestry crochet is a technique for designing imagery with stitches. This colorwork called for the development of a taller stitch. Instead of a stitch consisting of a single loop, a taller, square-shaped stitch—the single crochet stitch—was created. Some historians theorize that tapestry crochet possibly developed in Arabia, & it spread eastward to Tibet & westward to Spain, following the Arab trade routes immigrating into other Mediterranean countries. These routes were used between 300 A.D. to 1453 CE.

In these areas, Rashti Duz, which literally means, Rashti-style crochet, was a hugely popular fabric of the time. In Iran, Rashti Duzi is a form of traditional sewing & crocheting of Rasht. Some historians believe Rashti Duzi an ancestor of crochet began between 550 - 33 BC, using a crafted hook & brightly colored silk yarn on a woven fabric. Textile exports from Iran in the 400 AD were popular all over Europe – so much so that European kings & elders would use them to cover the graves of iconic historical figures. The Hermitage Museum in Russia houses an exquisite piece of Sassanid fabric decorated with crocheting work.

Young Woman Crocheting   Pierre-Auguste Renoir  (French 1841–1919)

Crochet started to take shape in Europe during the 16C (but it still wasn’t what we would recognize as crochet yet). It was originally known as “nun’s work” or “nun’s lace” due to its association with religious orders. Italy was the epicenter of handmade lacework for church textiles & exported to royalty & nobility in Europe. And Venetian lace was considered the finest quality, this was extremely delicate work done with a needle, not a hook, & the finest thread.


Arles Women Crocheting Published on Magasin Pittoresque, Paris, 1843

Crochet lace made its way to France with the help of King Louis 14th. His finance minister grew livid about the money that was being sent to Italy for lace, so he banned it's importation to France. He brought Venetian lace makers to teach locals in Normandy the art of lace making. The French eventually made it their own by changing some of the techniques & became the superior lace makers in Europe. Called “The Lace of Queens,” French lace making passed down the generations through the Benedictine Monastery Notre Dame D’Argentan Abbey.

Woman Crocheting 1903   Emilie Mundt (Danish 1842 - 1922)

In 1567, the tailor of Mary, Queen of Scots, Jehan de Compiegne, (d 1581) was a French tailor who served Mary in Scotland & England. He supplied her with silk thread for sewing & crochet, "soye à coudre et crochetz."  Mary, also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland, was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 until her forced abdication in 1567. The only surviving legitimate child of James V of Scotland, Mary was 6 days old when her father died & she inherited the throne.

Woman Crocheting   Eugène de Blaas (Italian 1843 - 1932)

The 1st known published instructions for crochet explicitly using that term to describe the craft in its present sense appeared in the Dutch magazine Penélopé in 1823. The 1833 volume of Penélopé describes & illustrates a shepherd's hook, & recommends its use for crochet with coarser yarn.

The earliest dated reference in English to garments made of cloth produced by looping yarn with a hook—shepherd's knitting—is in The Memoirs of a Highland Lady by Elizabeth Grant (1797–1830). The journal entry, itself, is dated 1812 was not recorded in published form until some time between 1845 & 1867.

Crocheting in the Garden at Marly   Mary Stevenson Cassatt (American 1844 - 1926)

In 1844, one of the numerous books discussing crochet that began to appear in the 1840s United States: "Crochet needles, sometimes called Shepherds' hooks, are made of steel, ivory, or box-wood. They have a hook at one end similar in shape to a fish-hook, by which the wool or silk is caught & drawn through the work. These instruments are to be procured of various sizes...:

Two years later, the same author writes: "Crochet, — a species of knitting originally practised by the peasants in Scotland, with a small hooked needle called a shepherd's hook, — has, within the last 7 years, aided by taste & fashion, obtained the preference over all other ornamental works of a similar nature. It derives its present name from the French; the instrument with which it is worked being by them, from its crooked shape, termed 'crochet.' This art has attained its highest degree of perfection in England, whence it has been transplanted to France & Germany, & both countries have claimed the invention."

Lydia Crocheting   Mary Stevenson Cassatt (American 1844 - 1926)

In the 19C as Ireland was facing the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849), crochet lace work was a form of famine relief as the production of crocheted lace became a method of making money for impoverished Irish workers & their families. It was triggered by a blight on the potato crop, which around 40 percent of the Irish people depended on, & resulted in around 1 million deaths. Locals would form a co-operative in order to crochet & produce products. Schools to teach crocheting were started. Teachers were trained & sent across Ireland to teach this craft. 

During the Irish Famine, a woman called Mademoiselle Riego de la Blanchardiere started to teach the farmers wives a new trade & that trade was Irish crochet. The craft was perfect for famine times as it was made from easily accessible materials, could be made in any conditions (droughts, floods, harsh winters) & the final product was coveted by higher society. Crochet had the look of lace which was very fashionable at the time but crochet was much quicker to produce which helped Irish crochet become very popular, very quickly.

Lydia Crocheting 1880   Mary Stevenson Cassatt (American 1844 - 1926)

Mademoiselle Riego figured out how to crochet lace that resembled Venetian needlepoint but instead of taking 200 hours to make (as needlepoint would), the labor would be reduced to 20 hours with crochet. This suited mass production because Irish crochet is not worked in rows, instead it consists of motifs that are made individually & then joined with fans or mesh. This meant that Irish crochet creators would specialise in a particular area according to their abilities. In fact, rare & unique Irish lace designs ‘belonged’ to certain families or local groups & the construction of particular motifs was a closely guarded secret as the family & locals relied upon it for their income.

When the Irish immigrated to the Americas, they were able to take with them crocheting. Mademoiselle Riego de la Branchardiere is generally credited with the invention of Irish Crochet, publishing the1st book of patterns in 1846. Irish lace became popular in Europe & America.

Woman Crocheting 1883   Francis Davis Millet (American 1846 - 1912)

England's Queen Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 1819–1901) popularized crochet by purchasing Irish crochet instead of expensive lace, helping women make a decent living during the potato famine, when their family farms weren’t producing an income. Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain & Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Her reign of 63 years & 216 days, which was longer than any of her predecessors, is known as the Victorian era.

1900 Queen-Victoria Crocheting

In 1900, Queen Victoria presented British military commander Lord Roberts with 8 woolen scarves, all hand crocheted by Her Majesty, with ‘VR’ embroidered in one corner. These were to be presented to “the most distinguished private soldiers serving in the South African Campaign.” 

Woman Crocheting 1882    Bertha Wegmann (Danish 1847 - 1926)

Basic materials required for crochet are a hook & some type of yarn or thread. The spun fibers of the 19C were generally divided into animal & plant fibers. Animal fibers include silk, long hairs of animals such as sheep (wool), goat (angora, or cashmere goat), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, cat, camel, yak, & muskox (qiviut). Plants used for fibers included cotton, flax (for linen), bamboo, ramie, hemp, jute, nettle, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, banana trees, soy & corn.

Woman Crocheting  Norbert Goeneutte (French 1854 – 1894)

In the 19C were 6 main types of basic stitches (US crochet terminology often differs from the terminology used in Europe).

Chain stitch – the most basic of all stitches & used to begin most projects.

Slip stitch – used to join chain stitch to form a ring.

Single crochet stitch (called double crochet stitch in Europe) – easiest stitch to master

Half-double crochet stitch (called half treble stitch in in Europe) – the 'in-between' stitch, sometimes called short double crochet in vintage publications

Double crochet stitch (called treble stitch in in Europe) (yarn over once) – many uses for this unlimited use stitch

Treble (or triple) crochet stitch (called double treble stitch in in Europe) (yarn over twice)

Barefoot Young Woman Crocheting  1905   Francois Alfred DeLobbe (French 1835 - 1920))

Woman Crocheting 1918    Anna Ancher (Danish 1859 - 1935)

Girl Crocheting with her Cat 1905   Peder Mønsted (Danish 1859 - 1941)

Woman Crocheting   Bruno Liljefors (Swedish 1860 - 1939)

Woman Crocheting    Paul Fischer (Danish 1860 - 1934)

Woman Crocheting    Peter Vilhelm Ilsted 1861  (Danish 1861 - 1933)

Women Crocheting 1900    Elin Kleopatra Danielson-Gambogi (Finnish 1861 - 1919)

Woman Crocheting 1904   Edmund Charles Tarbell (American painter) 1862 – 1938)

Woman Crocheting 1922    Louis Valtat (French painter) 1869 - 1952)

Woman Crocheting 1916    Harold Charles Francis Harvey (British 1874 - 1941)

Young Woman Crocheting   Elisabeth Sonrel (French painter) 1874 - 1953

Woman Crocheting 1908   Lucie Cousturier  (1876–1925)

Woman Crocheting    Ada A. Wolfe (American, 1878 - 1948)

See:

For Art see Christa Zaat, Art Researcher & Virtual Curator. https://www.facebook.com/christa.zaat

"Art That Saved the Irish From Starvation" by Zelda Bronstein. Berkeley Daily Planet, April 19, 2005.

"Crochet History - Crochet Guild of America (CGOA)." www.crochet.org.

Barber, E. J. W.; Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic & Bronze Ages with special reference to the Aegean; Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1991; 

Bar-Yosef O, Alon D (1988). "Nahal Hemar Cave. the excavations". 'Atiqot. 18.

Ben Zion, Ilan (5 March 2014). "Israel reveals eerie collection of Neolithic 'spirit' masks". The Times of Israel. 

Goren Y, Segal I, Bar-Yosef O (1993). "Plaster Artifacts & the Interpretation of the Nahal Hemar Cave". Journal of the Israeli Prehistoric Society. 25.

Paludan, Lis.  Crochet: History & Technique, Interweave Press, Loveland CO.

Pollock, Susan; Schier, Wolfram (2020). The Competition of Fibres: Early Textile Production in Western Asia, South-east & Central Europe (10,000-500BCE) (ebook). Oxbow Books. 

"Science: Cave Cache - Treasures in a hyena's lair". Time. 8 April 1985. 

Walker, Amélie A. (21 May 1998). "Oldest Glue Discovered". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America.